Materi Bahasa Inggris
Minggu, 11 Desember 2011
PREFACE
first of all written climb to praise and thank the presence of Allah SWT of blessing and blessing, so that report entitling " Material English Language " have been finished better without there is any resistance. writer realize that making of this report possible there is still insuffiency, by that because of writer conveniently accept suggestion and criticism which good for the shake perfection of making of writer report expectation hopefully this report good for side reading it.
Written Report Guidelines
(1). Title page
(2). Abstract
(3). Introduction
(4). Materials and Methods
(5). Results
(6). Discussion
(7). Conclusions
(8). References
Description of the content of each of these sections follows. Additional remarks on report preparation and writing style are given at the end.
Title page:
The TITLE PAGE identifies
Abstract:
The ABSTRACT is not a part of the body of the report itself. Rather, the abstract is a brief summary of the report contents that is often separately circulated so potential readers can decide whether to read the report. The abstract should very concisely summarize the whole report: why it was written, what was discovered or developed, and what is claimed to be the significance of the effort. The abstract does not include figures or tables, and only the most significant numerical values or results should be given.
Introduction:
The INTRODUCTION should provide a clear statement of the problem posed by the project, and why the problem is of interest. It should reflect the scenario, if available. If needed, the introduction also needs to present background information so that the reader can understand the significance of the problem. A brief summary of the unique approach your group used to solve the problem should be given, possibly also including a concise introduction to theory or concepts used later to analyze and to discuss the results.
Materials and Methods:
The purpose of the MATERIALS AND METHODS section is to describe the materials, apparatus, and procedures used to carry out the measurements. Most importantly, the section needs to provide a clear presentation of how key measurements were obtained and how the measurements were analyzed. This is where the particular approach followed to reach the project's objectives should be described. The detail should be sufficient so that the reader can easily understand what was done. An accurate, schematic diagram depicting the apparatus should be included and referred to in the text as needed (if a diagram has been already provided it can be used in the report, provided that the source is properly referenced). To improve clarity of presentation, this section may be further divided into subsections (ex. a Materials subsection, an Apparatus subsection, a Methods or Procedures subsection, etc.).
Results:
The RESULTS section is dedicated to presenting the actual results (i.e. measured and calculated quantities), not to discussing their meaning or intepretation. The results should be summarized using appropriate Tables and Figures (graphs or schematics). Every Figure and Table should have a legend that describes concisely what is contained or shown. Figure legends go below the figure, table legends above the table. Throughout the report, but especially in this section, pay attention to reporting numbers with an appropriate number of significant figures. A formal error analysis (such as, perhaps, was done in Physics lab) is not necessary. Still, features of the data-taking and processing that may have especially contributed to errors should be pointed out. One classical example is the taking of small differences between large numbers; for instance, 11.5+0.2 - 10.8+ 0.3 yields a very large fractional error (about 70 %) on the resulting difference, 0.7+0.5. Another procedure that usually increases error is numerical differentiation.
Discussion:
The DISCUSSION interprets the results in light of the project's objectives. The most important goal of the DISCUSSION section is to interpret the results so that the reader is informed of the insight or answers that the results provide. The DISCUSSION should also present an evaluation of the particular approach taken by the group. For example: Based on the results, how could the experimental procedure be improved? What additional, future work may be warranted? What recommendations can be drawn?
Conclusions:
The CONCLUSIONS should summarize the central points made in the Discussion section, reinforcing for the reader the value and implications of the work. If the results were not definitive, specific future work that may be needed can be (briefly) described. The conclusions should never contain "surprises". Therefore, any conclusions should be based on observations and data already discussed. It is considered extremely bad form to introduce new data in the conclusions.
References:
The REFERENCES section should contain complete citations following standard form. The form of the citation depends on the type of source being referenced, and is different for whole books, chapters in books, and articles published in a journal. One good format to follow is that used in the Chemical Engineering Progress journal, published by AIChE. The references should be numbered and listed in the order they were cited in the body of the report. In the text of the report, a particular reference can be cited by using a numerical superscript that corresponds to its number in the reference list. If a reference has not been actually consulted, it should be listed "as discussed in [name of the work that discussed the reference]".
Additional Remarks:
Writing Style
Figures
Figures are categorized as either graphs or drawings. Graphs should follow engineering standards, not Excel defaults. Backgrounds should be white, not shaded. Style should be similar to that found in standard engineering textbooks. Grids should be appropriate to what the reader is likely to extract from the figure. Type sizes for coordinates and legends should be appropriate: not too small, not too large. A sans-serif (e.g. Arial) font works well for figure legends and coordinate labels. All legends should be within the graph area, not beside it. Line thickness should be sufficient to provide for good visibility, but not heavier than necessary.
Figures (drawings, schematics) should be kept simple. Fancy art work and three-dimensional renditions can be distracting if used indiscriminately. Below every figure or graph should be a caption that concisely describes what is shown. Figures and graphs should be numbered consecutively.
Tables
Tables should be well organized, with unshaded backgrounds. A table should not include columns that have all entries identical. As with Figures, a standard engineering textbook can be used as a guide to good table composition. Tables should be numbered consecutively, and above each table should be a caption describing the table contents.
Some Common Abbreviations Used in Marking
NC = not clear
RW = rewrite
SP = be specific, avoid generalities
RT = rethink, logic appears flawed or missing
curly brackets = grader's comments
Underline = see comments above underlined text
Check mark = good
Check mark with one or more slashes or pluses = very good to excellent
Subjunctives
Subjunctive adalah bentuk kalimat
pengandaian. Namun topik Subjunctive ini berbeda dengan Conditional.
Conditional adalah kalimat pengandaian juga namun perbedaannya adalah
Conditional dilengkapi dengan syarat-syarat tertentu untuk mengandai-andai.
Misalnya "Aku akan mengundanya jika aku jadi kamu.". Berikut ini
adalah penjelasan tentang Subjunctives.
Struktur Subjunctive
be (past)
Struktur Subjunctive
be (past)
- I were
- you were
- he, she, it were
- we were
- you were
- they were
be (present)
- I be
- you be
- he, she, it be
- we be
- you be
- they be
Kata kerja lain (past & present)
- I work
- you work
- he, she, it work
- we work
- you work
- they work
Penggunaan Subjunctive
Kita menggunakan subjunctives ketika kita berbicara tentang suatu kegiatan yang sebenarnya tidak akan terjadi. Kita menggunakan subjunctive ketika berbicara tentang kegiatan yang seseorang:
Kita menggunakan subjunctives ketika kita berbicara tentang suatu kegiatan yang sebenarnya tidak akan terjadi. Kita menggunakan subjunctive ketika berbicara tentang kegiatan yang seseorang:
- Inginkan agar terjadi
- Harapkan akan terjadi
- Membayangkan akan terjadi
Contoh:
- The President requests that you be present at the meeting.
- It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
- If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
Subjunctive biasanya menggunakan
kedua struktur berikut:
- Kata Kerja: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest + that
- Ekspresi: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital + that
Contoh:
- The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.
- The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
- It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
- It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.
Perhatikan bahwa struktur berikut
ini, subjunctive-nya sama. Tidak masalah kalimat itu tenses-nya past atau
present. Contoh:
- Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.
- Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.
- Present: It is essential that she be present.
- Past: It was essential that she be present.
Kita selalu menggunakan were sebagai
pengganti "was" setelah if (dan kata lainnya yang memiliki arti yang
sama). Contoh:
- If I were you, I would ask her.
- Suppose she were here. What would you say?
Mengapa kita menggunakan "I were", "he were"?
Kita sering mendengar orang berkata "if I were you, I would go" atau "if he were here, he would tell you". Memang normalnya adalah: I was, he was. Tetapi struktur if I were you tidak melihat Past Tense". Struktur tersebut hanya mengenal past subjunctive untuk "to be" nya. Perhatikan contoh kata-kata/frase di bawah ini untuk struktur di atas:
- if
- as if
- wish
- suppose
- If I were younger, I would go. (FORMAL)
- If I was younger, I would go. (INFORMAL)
- If he weren't so mean, he would buy one for me.(FORMAL)
- If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for me. (INFORMAL)
- I wish I weren't so slow! (FORMAL)
- I wish I wasn't so slow! (INFORMAL)
- I wish it were longer. (FORMAL)
- I wish it was longer. (INFORMAL)
- It's not as if I were ugly. (FORMAL)
- It's not as if I was ugly. (INFORMAL)
- She acts as if she were Queen. (FORMAL)
- She acts as if she was Queen. (INFORMAL)
- If I were you, I should tell her. (FORMAL)
- If I was you, I should tell her. (INFORMAL)
Note: We do not normally say "if I was you", even in
familiar conversation.
Beberapa ekspresi menggunakan subjunctive. Contoh:
Beberapa ekspresi menggunakan subjunctive. Contoh:
- Long live the King!
- God bless America!
- Heaven forbid!
- Be that as it may, he still wants to see her.
- Come what may, I will never forget you.
- We are all citizens of the world, as it were
Gerunds
Gerunds atau verbals atau verbal nouns
adalah kata kerja berbentuk ing yang dipakai sebagai kata benda.
A. Bentuk
Gerund dibentuk dari : kata kerja +
ing (V1 + ing)
Misalnya: smoking, shoping, hunting dan
sebagainya.
Bentuk gerund adalah sama seperti
bentuk present participle, dan keduanya merupakan bagian dari kata kerja.
Perbedaannya gerund merupakan sejenis kata benda, tetapi present participle
adalah semacam kata sifat. Oleh karena itu, meskipun serupa tetapi keduanya
sangat berbeda dalam sifatnya.
Gerund mempunyai empat macam bentuk :
Tense
Present or continuous
Perfect
|
active
doing
having done
|
Passive
being done
having been done
|
B. Sifat
Sifat ganda gerund:
Gerund merupakan part of speech ganda.
Suatu kata benda dan kata kerja yang digabungkan. Oleh karena itu, kita harus
menjelaskannya dalam tiap sifat ini :
1) Sebagai kata benda
2) Sebagai bagian kata kerja
C. Pemakaian
1) Karena gerund merupakan sejenis kata
benda, maka ia dapat digunakan sebagai berikut :
a) Sebagai subjek untuk kata kerja
contoh: Sleeping is necessary to
life
b) Sebagai objek untuk kata kerja
contoh: I don’t like smoking
c) Sebagai komplemen untuk kata kerja
contoh: My chief delight is riding
d) Sebagai objek untuk preposisi .contoh:
He gave up smoking
2) Gerund dengan objek
Karena gerund adalah bagian kata kerja,
ia dapat menggunakan objek di belakangnya.
a) Objek langsung
contoh: He is clever at teaching
mathematics (mathematics = objek langsung)
b) Objek tak langsung
contoh: He is clever at teaching
us mathematics (us = objek tak langsung)
c) Objek yang tetap dipertahankan dalam
kalimat pasif
contoh: She is pleased at being
taught mathematics
d) Objek yang artinya mirip dengan kata
kerja itu sendiri
contoh: She is proud of having
sung a fine song
e) Objek refleksif
contoh: She is in the habit of
oversleeping herself
3) Gerund dengan genitif
Kata benda atau kata ganti, asalkan
menunjukkan orang atau binatang, haruslah dalam kasus genitif, bilamana kata
benda atau kata ganti itu diletakkan di depan gerund.
Contoh: I am pleased at your coming
Perhatikan :
a) Pemakaian gerund yang didahului kata
benda atau kata ganti genitif yang berikut ini kadang-kadang terjadi :
Contoh: This was a creative work of my doing
b) Kadang-kadang huruf “a” diletakkan
di depan gerund dalam pengertian preposisi. Di sini “a” merupakan perubahan
atau singkatan dari preposisi on :
Contoh:
The man has gone a-hunting
He has gone a-fishing
4) Yang memiliki bentuk ing, selain
gerund, masih ada present participle dan kata benda asli, haruslah kita bedakan
dengan jelas.
a) A sleeping carriage (a
carriage used for sleeping), di sini sleeping merupakan gerund
b) A sleeping child (a child
that is sleeping), di sini sleeping merupakan present participle yang dipakai
sebagai kata sifat
c) Rising early is good for
health, di sini rising adalah kata kerja yang diterangkan kata keterangan
early, merupakan gerund yang berfungsi sebagai subjek.
d) Early rising is good for
health, di sini rising diterangkan oleh kata sifat early, dengan demikian rising
adalah part of speech dan merupakan kata benda asli.
5) Gerund dalam bentuk present perfect:
Contoh:
He regrets having done so (he
regrets that he has done or did so)
He regretted having done so (he
regretted that he had done so)
Gerund dan bukan infinitive harus
dipakai:
a) Sesudah preposisi atau ungkapan
berpreposisi :
Without, etc + gerund
Contoh: Do your work without speaking.
Kerjakanlah pekerjaanmu tanpa berbicara
Look forward to + gerund
Contoh: I look forward to seeing
you soon. Saya mengharapkan dengan senang hati menemui anda segera
Instead of, etc + gerund
Contoh: You had much better work instead
of idling away your time. Sebaiknya Anda bekerja daripada
buang-buang waktu
b) Sesudah kata-kata yang secara tetap
menggunakan preposisi :
Fond of + gerund
Contoh: He is always fond of hunting.
Ia selalu suka berburu
Insist on + gerund
Contoh: He insisted on going
to Kudus. Ia bersikeras untuk pergi ke Kudus
Object to + gerund
Contoh: I object to smoking.
Saya keberatan merokok
Prevent from + gerund
Contoh: I was prevented from going
because of illness. Saya terhalang pergi karena sakit
Succeed in + gerund
Contoh: He succeeded in
solving the problem. Ia berhasil memecahkan masalah itu
Think of + gerund
Contoh: I often think of
going to France. Saya sering bermaksud pergi ke Perancis
Tired of + gerund
Contoh: I’m tired of eating
foreign food every day. Saya bosan makan makanan asing tiap hari
Used to + gerund
Contoh: I’m used to getting
up early. Saya biasa bangun pagi-pagi
c) Sesudah katakata kerja tertentu
Avoid + gerund
Contoh: We can’t avoid making
mistakes. Kita tak dapat menghindari membuat kesalahan
Can’t bear + gerund
Contoh: He can’t bear being laughed
at. Ia tak dapat tahan ditertawakan orang
Can’t help + gerund
Contoh: I can’t help laughing.
Saya tak dapat menahan tertawa
Catatan 1 :
Cannot help dan cannot but mempunyai
arti yang sama tidak dapat menahan, tetapi pemakaiannya berbeda. Cannot help
diikuti oleh gerund tetapi cannot but diikuti oleh infinitive tanpa to.
contoh :
I cannot but laugh
Can’t stand + gerund
Contoh: She can’t stand being
laughed at. Ia tak tahan ditertawakan orang
Delay + gerund
Contoh: I delayed answering you
owing to pressure of work. Saya menunda untuk menjawab anda karena sibuk
Enjoy + gerund
He enjoys playing a game
of football. Ia senang sekali bermain sepak bola
Catatan 2 :
Kata-kata kerja yang berarti “to like”
atau “to dislike” boleh diikuti infinitive atau gerund.
Contoh:
He likes reading English
literature (he likes to read English literature). Ia suka membaca
kesusastraan Inggris
She dislikes swimming (he
dislike to swim). Ia tak suka berenang
Escape + gerund
Contoh: He narrowly escaped drowning.
Ia nyaris tenggelam
Finish + gerund
Contoh: I haven’t finished
speaking. Saya belum selesai berbicara
Catatan 3 :
Kata kerja yang berarti “to begin”
diikuti oleh infinitive atau gerund
Go on (= continue) + gerund
Contoh: The rain went on falling
all night. Hujan terus turun sepanjang malam
Keep (on) + gerund
Contoh: He was kept waiting
a long time, but he kept his temper. Ia dibiarkan menunggu lama, tetapi ia
menahan amarahnya
Mind (= object to) + gerund
Contoh: Would you mind shutting
the window? berkeberatankah anda menutup jendela itu?
Miss + gerund
Contoh: He narrowly missed getting
killed. Ia nyaris terbunuh
Postpone + gerund
Contoh: I shall postpone
writing till I learn full particulars. Saya akan menunda menulis surat
sampai saya mendengar/mengetahui data yang lengkap
Remember + gerund
Contoh: I remember meeting
you at the theatre. Saya ingat pernah menjumpai anda di dalam gedung bioskop
Stop + gerund
Contoh: My watch stopped
ticking. Jam saya mati
Understand + gerund
Contoh: He understands managing
his business. Ia mengerti bagaimana mengurus bisnisnya
d) Sesudah kata-kata sifat tertentu
Busy + gerund
Contoh: I am busy writing
letters. Saya sibuk menulis surat
Worth + gerund
Contoh: This book is worth
reading. Buku ini patut dibaca
e) Sesudah ungkapan-ungkapan tertentu
It is no use + gerund
Contoh: It’s no use begging
like a beggar. Tak ada gunanya meminta-minta seperti orang minta-minta
It is no good + gerund
Contoh: It’s no good getting
angry at once. Tak ada gunanya segera menjadi marah
There is no + gerund
Contoh: There’s no getting
around it. Hal itu tak dapat dielakkan
There is no harm in + gerund
Contoh: There’s no harm in trying.
Tak ada ruginya bila mencoba
Have the pleasure of + gerund
Contoh: I had the pleasure of meeting
him. Saya senang sekali bertemu dengannya
Take pleasure in + gerund
Contoh: He takes pleasure in visiting
the sick. Dengan senang hati ia mengunjungi orang sakit
To be interested in + gerund
Contoh: He was interested in learning
more about my work. Ia berminat belajar lebih banyak tentang pekerjaanku
To be ashamed of + gerund
Contoh: The girl was ashamed of
having been beaten in class by her brother. Gadis itu malu karena telah
dipukul di kelas oleh saudara laki-lakinya
Gerund dipakai pada papan tanda yang
menyatakan suatu larangan, yaitu sesudah no
Contoh:
No, talking! diamlah!
No, passing! dilarang melintas!
No, smoking! dilarang merokok!
No, spitting! dilarang meludah!
etc.
Dipakai dalam ungkapan
Contoh: Seeing is believing. Kalau
sudah melihat baru percaya
D. Gerund sejenis kata benda abstrak
Gerund sebenarnya merupakan sejenis
kata benda abstrak dan mempunyai arti yang sama seperti abstract noun atau
seperti noun infinitive:
Gerund : Sleeping is necessary
to health
Abstract Noun : Sleep is
necessary to health
Noun infinitive : To sleep is
necessary to health
Ketiga kalimat tersebut di atas
semuanya berarti suatu hal yang sama yaitu tidur perlu untuk kesehatan.
THE INFINITIVE
Bentuk Dasar Kata Kerja
A. Infinitive with to. Kita menggunakan
infinitive with to, jika :
1) Didahului oleh kata-kata kerja yang
sering diikuti oleh infinitif.
a) Tidak mempunyai sebuah objek
agree (menyetujui), refuse (menolak),
promise (berjanji), propose (bermaksud, berniat), decide (memutuskan),
determine (memutuskan), hesitate (ragu-ragu), hope (berharap), regret
(menyesal), learn (belajar), manage (berusaha), arrange (mengatur), undertake
(berusaha), remember (ingat), forget (lupa), seem (rupa-rupanya, rasanya), try
(mencoba, berusaha), fail (lalai, lupa), neglect (lalai)
contoh :
He tried to fix the car
He fails to return the book, etc.
b) Boleh diikuti objek
ask (minta), help (membantu), expect
(mengharapkan, mengira), like (suka), prefer (lebih suka), mean (bermaksud),
intend (bermaksud), want (ingin, menghendaki), wish (hendak, menghendaki)
contoh :
He asked to be allowed to enter
I helped to open the letters
They asked me to wait a moment
I helped him to paint, etc.
c) Selalu mempunyai objek
advise (menasehati), urge (mendorong),
tempt (menggoda), encourage (membesarkan hati, mendorong), warn (memperingatkan).
invite (mengundang), request (minta, memohon), teach (mengajar), instruct
(memerintahkan, melatih, mengajar),remind (mengingatkan), tell (mengatakan,
menyuruh), command (memerintahkan), order (menyuruh), compel (memaksa,
mengharuskan), oblige (mengharuskan), allow (memperkenankan), permit
(mengizinkan, membolehkan), forbid (melarang)
contoh :
I advised him to give up smoking
I urged him to persevere, etc.
2) Didahului oleh ought :
Contoh: Children ought to obey their
parents. Anak-anak seharusnya mentaati orang tua mereka
3) Didahului oleh to be
Contoh: He is very naughty to tease his
friend. Ia sangat nakal menggoda temannya
B. Infinitive without to, digunakan
jika :
1) Didahului oleh kata kerja bantu
kecuali to be dan ought
Contoh: He can swim very well. Ia dapat
berenang dengan baik sekali
2) Didahului oleh need dan dare dalam
kalimat menyangkal dan kalimat tanya
Contoh: He needn’t go
3) Didahului oleh had better (lebih
baik), had rather (lebih suka) dan would rather (lebih suka)
Contoh: You had better go there at
once. Anda lebih baik pergi kesana segera
I had rather stay at home than go to
the cinema. Saya lebih suka tinggal di rumah daripada
pergi menonton bioskop
4) Didahului oleh kata kerja to see, to
hear, to feel, dan to watch
Contoh: I saw her leave the building.
Saya melihat dia meninggalkan gedung itu
I heard him speak in English. Saya
mendengar dia berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris
atau boleh digunakan gerund :
Contoh: I saw her leaving the building
Kalau kata kerja see, hear, feel, watch
dipakai dalam kalimat pasif, infinitif with to harus dipakai.
Contoh: She was seen to leave the
building
5) Didahului oleh kata kerja to have,
to let, dan to make (dalam pengertian menyebabkan)
Contoh: I had the tailor sew my shirt.
Saya menyuruh penjahit itu menjahit baju saya
You can’t make her understand. Anda
tidak dapat memaksakan dia supaya mengerti
C. The two kinds of infinitive (dua
jenis infinitif)
Ada dua jenis infinitif, bentuk sama
tetapi fungsinya berbeda :
1. The noun infinitive (infinitif kata
benda)
2. The gerundial infinitive (infinitif
kata kerja yang dibendakan)
1) The noun infinitive boleh dipakai
sebagai :
a) Subjek terhadap kata kerja
To err (= error) is human
To forgive (= forgiveness) is divine
b) Objek terhadap kata kerja
Contoh: We expect to succeed. Kita
mengharapkan sukses
c) Komplemen terhadap kata kerja
Contoh: She appears to be a wise woman.
Ia kelihatannya seorang wanita yang bijaksana
d) Objek terhadap kata depan except,
about, but, than, etc.
Contoh: He desired nothing except to
succeed. Ia tak menginginkan apa-apa kecuali keberhasilan
e) Bentuk eksklamasi/seruan :
Contoh: Foolish fellow! to suppose that
he could be pardoned! orang tolol! siapa kira bahwa ia dapat diampuni!
2) The gerundial infinitive dapat dipakai untuk
:
a) Memberi sifat kata kerja, dalam
pengertian tujuan/maksud, sebab, atau hasil.
Contoh: He came to see the flower show.
Ia datang untuk melihat pameran bunga
b) Memberi sifat kata benda, dalam
pengertian tujuan atau maksud. Infinitifnya mungkin atributif atau
predikatif
Contoh: An apartment to let. Sebuah
apartemen yang disewakan (pemakaian atributif)
This apartment is to let. Apartemen ini
disewakan (pemakaian predikatif)
c) Memberi sifat kata sifat, dalam
pengertian hal atau maksud :
Contoh: Slow to speak and quick to
hear. Lambat berbicara dan cepat mendengar
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